IN THIS DOCUMENT:

Introduction

General issues

Knowledge management

Strategic planning

Leadership

Teams and teamworking

People management

Performance appraisal

Section on Management and Marketing

Review of the Management Literature 1997

****Note to Editor some journals do not have volume numbers. The citations are correct!

Patricia Layzell Ward is Editor of Library Manager and Secretary/Treasurer of the Section on Management and Marketing and is involved with research, teaching and consultancy in the field of management. She can be contacted at Haulfryn, Cae Eithin, Minffordd, Penrhyndeudraeth, Gwynedd, Wales LL48 6EL UK (e-mail: layzellward@celtic.co.uk).

Introduction

This paper continues the reviews of the general literature of management prepared by members of the IFLA Section on Management and Marketing, the previous one being that by Herrera and Pereyra covering 1996¹. The literature is extensive and the Section is aware that the coverage to date has been limited to that published in the English language. In their paper Herrera and Pereyra question whether the time has come to narrow the scope of the reviews, and to this should be added the possibility of extending the coverage to the main languages of IFLA. Now that the Section has been transformed from a Round Table and has a growing membership list (has your organisation joined yet?) it has the capability to undertake this task. The matter will be discussed by the new Standing Committee at its meetings in Amsterdam. The view of readers will be welcome and should be sent to the author.

The intention of the review is to draw attention to relevant papers in the literature of management - to save the time of the busy information and library manager. The articles selected met the following criteria: published in 1997, reflect the issues in the professional press, indicate changing approaches in the general field of management, and stimulate the thoughts of the reader. They were selected by a search of a commercial database covering eighty three journal titles in the field of management in the English language. Trawling the abstracts revealed some one hundred and eighty papers of particular interest from which the final selection was made.

General issues

Perhaps the greatest influence on organisations today is the impact of technological change and a starting point is a paper by Cornish which reviews thirty four predictions made by The Futurist in its first issue thirty years ago. Correct forecasts include the landing on the moon and the transplant of human body organs, but the prediction of the introduction of three-dimensional TV was wrong. He questions why some of the forecasts were not correct². Eder discusses the benefits and the downside of today’s interactive society, with the downside including a the blurring of work and leisure, demands on time and resources, and connection yet isolation³. Speculating about the digitised future Cetron and Davies see the coming together of what used to be separate technologies giving examples of toasters which will ‘know’ just how we like our muffins or toast done, and new kinds of computers such as DNA, Quantum or Optical which will need advances in software⁴.

Turning to overall issues McCune describes the current operating climate as being characterised by a reversal of a command-and-control style, the competing needs of employees and customers, and the downsizing survivor’s syndrome. He writes of the span of control embracing a number of teams, managers’ multi-tasking, the use of project management, and the demands of regulations. The skills of delegation and flexibility are considered at a time of uncertainty which implies a need for greater control not less. The manager has to learn new supervisory skills⁵. The value of managing information effectively is prominent in the thoughts of leading management thinkers. Among a number of other points Drucker discusses the importance of external information gathering by organisations and the management of knowledge resources. Dyson considers what the Internet means in terms of a loss of organisational control of the corporate image. Handy calls for a new language of polity which stresses the need for the organisation to be seen as a community created by a common purpose. Saffo sees the need for better management of information via tools such as visualisation and simulation. Senge echoes McCune’s view of the change of the command-and-control style but places the emphasis on learning and information sharing⁶. The forces of change are seen to be the global markets, teams operating in flatter structures, the burn-out of personnel, and a lack of attention to building core competencies⁷. Kim and Mauborgne believe that people are less concerned with outcomes which have predominated management thinking to date, than with fair processes. Fair process is highly relevant in a knowledge based economy in order to build trust and unlock ideas⁸. Whilst Japanese management practices have been much copied by the West in the past, Sawayama writes about the Japanese companies that have survived the recession. Five factors are identified for their success: a combination of operational measures with structural changes; awareness of strengths, weaknesses and capabilities; unexpectedly for Japan - human resource management policies such as meritocracy; powerful leadership at the top; and a competitive edge. The paper discusses the relationship between culture, performance and strategic focus⁹. Emery considers the future of the social sciences over the next thirty years. He indicates that this period will be characterised by people’s attempts to create social orders, and institutions that are adapting to turbulent environments and controlling the complexity that results. He questions whether this will result in organisations that are more democratic - or totalitarian¹⁰. The role of social anthropology is seen as helping managers to understand the nature of their work, particularly in terms of corporate culture, critique and organisational change¹¹. Brown discusses whether there is a distinctive multidisciplinary approach to management research, whether a specific approach can be chosen and applied, the essence of an academic discipline and the nature of management education, this having given rise to the debate as to whether management is an art or science. He believes that management research and practice are both becoming integrating activities¹².

Management innovations in government brought about by a reduction in the amount of public money devoted to government operations have been described by Kaul. They include a focus on achieving results, meeting customer expectations, distinguishing between policy formulation (political responsibility) and implementation(managerial responsibility), cultivating the commitment of staff to change, links between the private and public sectors, introducing output-oriented management systems and making full use of IT¹³. A series of papers discusses government reform in Australia ¹⁴, Canada¹⁵,¹⁶,¹⁷, Ghana¹⁹, New Zealand ¹⁹,Singapore²⁰ , and Zambia²¹.

Knowledge management

Knowledge management is a buzz-word in 1997. Quintas, Lefrere and Jones discuss whether it is just another management fad, but conclude that it is a process for the development of action-oriented goals and related activities²². A new term is ‘knowledge activist’, defined as being the person or department which become responsible for co-ordinating knowledge creation efforts within an organisation. Their roles are: to be catalysts for knowledge creating, connectors of knowledge creation activities (pulling together fragmented processes) and merchants of foresight (giving overall direction to the knowledge creation occurring in organisations’ micro-communities)²³. Jordan and Jones provide a framework for assessing an organisation’s approach to knowledge management²⁴. Demarest provides some definitions of knowledge management and stresses the need for it to enhance performance through innovation²⁵. The reason why it is becoming more important is explained by Covin and Stivers who argue that in seeking competitive advantage, skills and talent may be more important indicators of long-term competitive prospects than tangible assets²⁶.

Strategic planning

Strategic planning continues to be a dominant theme. Taylor reviews the changes that have taken place in strategic planning during the past thirty years moving from long-range planning to the grass roots approach²⁷. Camillus examines the evolution of models to consider innovative alternatives for more flexible organisations, and constructs a transformational model that represents a paradigm shift²⁸. The question of discontinuity is also reviewed by Leavy who wonders whether strategic renewal has to be a ‘disruptive revolution’ or can be managed less traumatically. His paper includes a useful review of the literature²⁹. A glossary of techniques for strategic analysis has been prepared by Hussey³⁰ who also reviews experience over the past thirty years, pointing out that organisations noted for the quality of their planning have later encountered problems. His four factors which can indicate a lack of quality are: a failure to analyse effectively; a failure to implement strategic decisions; problems in the planning process; and an incomplete understanding of the concepts³¹, ³².

The concepts that underpin organisational learning and the problems of translating theory into practice are considered by Karagozoglu. A framework has been developed, and the relationship between assimilating knowledge and using it, is discussed³³. On the other hand Kleiner and Roth argue that learning from experience is an individual phenomenon and so can frustrate the collective nature of organisational learning³⁴.

Thornberry makes an interesting point about ‘vision’ in that it can be vague and that the literature has not been helpful in differentiating concepts. The elements which combine to give a clear vision are: the reasons for being; cultural beliefs and values; mission; goals and objectives; and a vivid description of what the organisation aspires to. Visionary thinking can be taught - save for conceptual ability and courage³⁵. Hawkins has surveyed the literature on organisational change, and argues that organisational culture is too complex to be explained by simple taxonomies and models and that a range of disciplines can contribute to research³⁶. The paradox of new managers as a levers of change is discussed by Rieple who feels that managers from the outside are more able to introduce change, but have less power and competencies as a result of relative inexperience of the organisation. At the same time they need to mould themselves into an homogeneous unit, but this can conflict with the need for change. They also have to be fairly ruthless and hence risk demotivating staff and instilling fear³⁷. The values that have guided Organisation Development and the way in which they have been affected by techniques such as re-engineering are discussed by Burke. He considers that OD consultants should focus on the lack of community in society and organisations, trust, organisational cultures and corporate power³⁸. Stainer and Stainer consider the ethical dimensions of re-engineering pointing out the suspicions that staff have of this process. They argue that it should be based on trust, commitment, improved processes and involvement³⁹. The effectiveness of downsizing is reviewed by Orpen who argues that insufficient attention is being paid to alternatives, pointing out that the anticipated benefits may not emerge. Guidelines for effective downsizing include reducing layers, not just positions; providing employee support and assistance; and adopting a systematic approach⁴⁰. The question of personal conflict emerges in a paper by Leonard and Straus who discuss the importance of understanding how people think and act. They describe diagnostic tools which help to gain insights which help to understand one’s own cognitive style and preference through to depersonalising conflict⁴¹. Brown examines Corporate Darwinism - the survival of the fittest, focusing on the debate concerning organisational structures and the advantages and disadvantages of flat and hierarchical structures. He believes that delayering has gone too far, and that it fails to understand the importance of middle managers and the value of some forms of limited hiearchy⁴². The advantages of the old hierarchical systems in terms of clear job descriptions are described by Sparrow. He lists the areas in which flexibility is being introduced: numerical, functional, financial, temporal, geographical, organisational, and cognitive, together with problems that result from job-based flexibility⁴³. The psychological effects of downsizing and re-engineering upon people are described by Kets de Vries and Balazs, who write of the ‘mourning’ period and burn-out and the ways in which internal communications and HRM can minimise the damage⁴⁴. The role of internal communication in assisting and improving the process of internal change and re-engineering, is stressed by Nelson and Coxhead. They write of the value of using a common language, positive and consistent behaviours, a top-level commitment, the raising of individual self-esteem, and the use of specialist communicators⁴⁵.

Leadership

On the agenda of most national library associations is the question of leadership development, but the review of the literature indicates that there may not be common ground amongst writers on this subject. Barker questions how we can train leaders if we don’t know what leadership is? He argues that few writers have analysed what they mean by leadership. His analysis is that it is grounded in the feudal concept of leadership in which a powerful male leader controls and directs the efforts of those at lower levels to achieve his goals⁴⁶. Frank and Porter have examined texts on leadership but feel that it is not clear on how leadership can be effected. They consider that in practice it can be based on the following points that remove the need for elegant theories: what to do, how to do it, why to do it, resources to do it, want to do it, and commitment from the top⁴⁷. The experience of working with managers around the world, by Heifetz and Laurie, yields six principles of adaptive leadership: get on the balcony - see or create the contexts for change; identify the adaptive challenge; regulate distress from adaptive work; maintain disciplined attention, give the work back to the people to get them to assume greater responsibility; and protect the voices of leadership from below⁴⁸. Stewart addresses the question of managerial power and wonders if a more casual approach has really replaced the desire for power. He draws on three forms of power described by Weber - charismatic, traditional and bureaucratic - indicating that most of today’s power falls into the last category. New styles of authority are being displayed with knowledge work and the market, challenging formal authority. He has studied the laid-back culture of the US West Coast: the digital revolution and the baby-boomer culture have contributed to a more relaxed style, but considers that power can still be perceived because of informal sources such as autonomy and visibility⁴⁹. Research in Australia has investigated the reasons why women find leadership difficult, drawing on the experiences of women in leadership positions. The conclusion among the group was that women are leaders in the home and the community, but are excluded from leadership in the organisation. It examines how women fight against this construct of leadership to develop their own sense of what leadership is⁵⁰. Western leadership theory has been compared with that in West and East Asia and Africa. Blunt and Jones conclude that the current Western ideas of leadership are not widely applicable in Asia and Africa because of different values concerning authority, group loyalties and interpersonal harmony⁵¹. Moral leadership is discussed by Gini who examines the traits and talents required by the leader such as character, charisma, political ambition, and technical expertise or business literacy. Moral leaders must inspire achievement and take risks⁵².

Teams and teamworking

Deligonul has developed a framework for understanding team research which is based on the philosophical perspectives of: operationalism; modernism; post-operationalism; and post-modernism. Each is described before positioning team research along the dimensions of the framework. The conceptual and managerial implications for future research and for the implementation of teamwork are discussed⁵³. The defensive actions, procedures and processes used by team members to shield themselves, or the team, from threatening and embarrassing situations are described⁵⁴. Belbin’s team role theories have been examined to evaluate their ability to predict team performance. The findings indicate that it is difficult to apply the concept of team performance in a non- competitive situation such as management rather than manufacturing⁵⁵. Teamworking has been introduced in an international company using IT to create a virtual team network. There is a flat structure that enables people to work co-operatively and share knowledge. It describes breakthrough thinking which sets a seemingly unattainable target and scours for ideas to meet it⁵⁶. Core competence is defined as being ‘a combination of complementary skills and knowledge bases embedded in a group or team that results in the ability to execute one or more critical processes to a world-class standard’. The creation of competencies through the routes of evolution, incubation or acquisition are examined, and comments are made on how to ensure sustainability⁵⁷.

Wageman points out that there has been some disenchantment with self-managing teams, but identifies critical success factors - having a clear and engaging direction through to developing team norms that promote strategic thinking⁵⁸. Eisenhardt, Kahwajy and Bourgeois focus on the problem of ensuring that constructive conflict within teams does not descend into dysfunctional conflict, drawing their advice from research involving twelve teams. Those that were the most successful in keeping personality out of discussion exhibited distinct tendencies: working with more, rather than less, information; developing multiple alternatives/options; creating common goals for teams to support; using humour; balancing power between the management team; seeking consensus with qualification e.g. if total agreement is not possible, then the senior manager abitrates⁵⁹. Paper and Johnson have examined the literature on organisational learning, organisational memory, empowerment and creativity and argue that, despite the great interest shown in these concepts, there has been little work to identify the links between them. Having studied some major US organisations a matrix has been developed which shows the management challenges faced by organisations, depending on the extent to which their teams are empowered and have mechanisms in place for the organisation to retain the knowledge generated by its teams. There is a need to develop the corporate memory (through documentation etc.)if advantage is to be taken of the employees’ creativity and problem solving abilities⁶⁰.

People management

Coff discusses the value of human assets indicating that they can be a source of sustainable advantage because tacit knowledge and social complexity are hard to imitate. Organisations need to be able to cope with associated management dilemmas and he has developed a framework for coping with this challenge⁶¹. The question of a psychological contract developed on employees’ beliefs about the reciprocal obligations which they have with their organisation, and the feelings of violation and anger when they perceive that the organisation has not fulfilled its obligations are discussed by Wolfe Morrison and Robinson. It considers how violation can be minimised or prevented⁶². In many countries organisations are shedding staff and Dearlove describes the inept way in which this has been handled in some UK organisations. Poor termination interviews can affect morale amongst staff who are retained. It is suggested that outplacement specialists can assist, and that training be provided for managers who are inexperienced in termination interviews⁶³. Another UK study examines the reasons why people work concluding, not surprisingly that money and security are important. Sixteen other reasons are listed including the need to feel valued, escape from home, intellectual challenge, and enjoyment. These are related to the work of Maslow and Drucker, and it is emphasised that motivation and morale are important factors to consider when managing people⁶⁴. Arnold and Johnson question whether formal mentoring has the career and psycho-social benefits claimed for it. A survey revealed that psycho-social benefits were gained to a greater extent than the career-related benefits. Guidance is provided for organisations considering whether to set up mentoring schemes⁶⁵.

Performance appraisal

Robotham and Jubb raise the question as to whether the competence approach to measuring the performance of managers is the most appropriate, despite its wide use. They focus on the difference between managerial effectiveness and effective management⁶⁶. Longenecker also questions the effectiveness of performance appraisal for managers identifying ten main causes of failure which include unclear performance criteria, a poor working relationship with the boss etc.⁶⁷.

Career development

The effect of delayering and plateauing on career frameworks is examined by Baruch and Peiperl who conclude that the traditional career paths have disappeared and fast tracking is a thing of the past. They question the nature of the psychological contract between the organisation and talented managers, suggesting that it will have to be based on an honest assessment of what can be offered in terms of career prospects. Amongst other possibilities they suggest that intrapreneurship and lifelong learning might offer the managers opportunities to develop and use their skills⁶⁸. A study carried out in Canada examines the same question and lists actions that can be taken by the individual and the organisation. Whilst it may be unavoidable, strategies must be put in place to ensure that plateaued employees do not feel frustrated and demotivated⁶⁹. One HRM issue of growing importance is that of dual-career couples. An Australian study concludes that the problem is complex demanding sacrifices from one or other partner at times, and posing particular problems for women. It provides guidance on how organisations can help dual-career couples⁷⁰.

A survey of management development in the UK found that many targets set ten years ago had been met, with more training and development than in the past, and far more support from senior managers and their organisation⁷¹. Winterton and Winterton report a study which indicates the benefits obtained from competence-based management development⁷². In an interview with Chris Argyris the question of how people learn is discussed. He summarises his work on double-loop and organisational learning, and describes how learning can be transferred from a training session to the real world. He underlines the importance of people understanding the gap between what they know and what they do, arguing that if people can challenge the defensive thought processes which govern their actions, they can be more effective in their work⁷³.

Equal opportunity

There is a growing awareness of cultural diversity in the workplace, and in the interaction between staff and clients. Denton provides an overview of the development of human culture from its beginnings after the Ice Age, examines how culture defines who we are and how we behave, and how this may be applied in organisations today drawing on the experiences of Xerox⁷⁴. Milburn considers that communication practices within organisations are related to their culture, and that cultural rules dictate the way in which organisations can learn from diversity programmes. For this reason communications can present problems and that there is a need to scrutinise policies for cultural assumptions⁷⁵. The question of the differences in assumptions held by individuals in cross-cultural groups is discussed by Smith and Berg. They describe three processes for encouraging group acceptance of these differences as the basis for effective learning⁷⁶.

The extent to which women have progressed in management roles continues to be an issue of concern. Simpson observes that the climate is generally more supportive of women, but that token women still experience the same barriers and marginalization as Rosabeth Moss Kanter found in the 1970’s⁷⁷. Duke reports that despite a UK university taking action to promote equal opportunity progress was slow and the evidence of cultural change was patchy⁷⁸. A study carried out in Norway examined work experiences and job and career satisfaction among professional and managerial women. The findings are compared with a Canadian study and are consistent with regard to organisational support being related to job and career satisfaction⁷⁹. Many of the initiatives to assist women are seen as being inadequate, creating resentment among men and failing to change the fundamental structure of the organisation. It argues for an approach based on changing organisations, not women, believing that techniques which challenge the basic assumptions of men and women about work and gender, such as skills audit and training, will be more effective in the long run⁸⁰. A series of recruitment interviews were analysed to assess how they were commonly structured to ensure equal opportunities and remove the potential for gender balance. It found that the training given to interviewers helped to eliminate overt bias, but that the perception of what a manager is still conforms to a male stereotype, and the behaviour of both the interviewers and the candidates reinforce the idea that managing is a masculine role⁸¹. Burke and Black draw attention to a male backlash in organisations and discuss six reasons for the current increase in backlash which is an underdocumented field⁸².

Lewis investigated whether family friendly policies are part of an overall organisational change which will change the culture and structure of work, or whether they will simply be a benefit offered to employees of some organisations. The benefits to be gained by organisations are reviewed⁸³. The effect of the family upon a career has been studied by Morris and Nocera who feel that corporate America misunderstands the needs of working parents⁸⁴.

The degree to which affirmative action has been effective in the USA is questioned since only 2% of the executive positions in the top 1000 Fortune companies in the US are occupied by people of colour. A group of executives of colour consider the issues why white business people feel uncomfortable with them in professional settings⁸⁵.

Age discrimination in the UK is considered by Taylor and Walker who explore the labour market position of the older worker and set out ways in which public policies on age discrimination might develop⁸⁶. This theme is taken forward by McDonald and Potton who question whether the European Union can help the older worker⁸⁷.

With teleworking increasing Murray makes the case for a formal agreement, separate from a contract of employment, which would formalise the employer/employee teleworker relationship. This would cover employer and employee relationships, who pays for what, provision and use of equipment and computing issues, health and safety etc.⁸⁸. Brocklehurst describes a research project into homeworking finding that contrary to management expectations, the existing team sense was eroded and several homeworkers felt a challenge to their identity, loosing the feeling of being ‘at work’⁸⁹. The feeling of insecurity is also reported by Moon and Stanworth who pinpoint a number of benefits and costs of flexible working practices and offer a charter for employed teleworkers⁹⁰.

Techniques

This section focuses on techniques for managing. Schein discusses the past, present and future of organisational development (OD). He foresees the blending of OD and organisational learning, the discovery that learning is a social process, an increased emphasis on tacit knowledge and skills, and an increased understanding of the impact of culture and sub-culture⁹¹. Argyris also examines OD over the past 40 years and notes the changes from client-centred support to support for effective action, and shifts in the strategy for change⁹². Raelin distinguishes between two branches of action research - action learning and action science which may help OD practitioners⁹³.

Blake looks back at grid organisational development which brings together seven theories of leadership to promote excellence⁹⁴.

Lovelock and Ashworth proposes a technique called SCQuAre to help managers sell their ideas⁹⁵. A growth has taken place in the use of 360-degree feedback. The implications of self-other rating agreement for HRM is discussed⁹⁶. Hauschildt examines the effectiveness of a range of techniques to stimulate creativity including brainstorming, synectics, bionics, morphological analysis and brainwriting. He identifies the problems and weaknesses associated with them⁹⁷. Briggs and de Vreede explain how electronic group support systems can improve communication and decision-making at meetings⁹⁸, whilst Hill describes collaborative software for on-line conferencing reviewing the major packages⁹⁹.

The reliability of SERVQUAL is questioned by Lam and Woo who indicate that there is instability in the technique over time, and hence question its usefulness¹⁰⁰. The use of SERVQUAL within an Australian University to measure quality is described by Pearson¹⁰¹.

Mystery customer research is growing in popularity, and a paper describes this technique which seems to be very close to the participative studies carried out in libraries. A mystery customer visits organisations to test the quality of provision of services¹⁰².

Finally two papers focus on marketing. Bhote draws attention to deficiencies in market research and outlines methods for understanding customer requirements¹⁰³. Four types of marketing have been identified from a literature review. They are transactional marketing, database marketing, interaction marketing and network marketing¹⁰⁴.

Reviewing the literature of management is challenging, and the outcomes will depend on the methods use to carry out the exercise. My impression is that there is a return to consider the human aspects of management, that many questions still remain to be answered, some techniques develop and mutate over the years, but this search did not throw up any new gurus or approaches to management such as the re-engineering of a few years ago. But this is an impression that may well be incorrect.

Acknowledgement

I am indebted to MCB University Press for permission to use Anbar Abstracts in the preparation of this review.

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Latest Revision: March 1, 1999